S22: From Rebellion to Restoration
China to 1800
November 3, 2025
Winter Blossom as Metaphor
The plum blossom endures the cold of winter, blooming even more in the chill; it embodies steadfastness and purity.
Three Literati Paintings
Gong Kai: Emaciated Horse
Gong Kai 龔開 (1222–1307), Emaciated Horse 駿骨圖, Ink on paper handscroll, 29.9 x 56.9 cm, Osaka Municipal Museum.
Gong Kai: Emaciated Horse, continued
- After Kublai Khan conquered the Southern Song Dynasty in 1279, Gong Kai remained loyal to the Song and refused to serve the Mongols, fleeing to Jiangnan and living in poverty.
- The emaciated horse in his painting symbolizes his personal hardships and his rejection of government service.
- It also represents the decline of China under Mongolian rule, contrasting with the strength of China in earlier dynasties.
Qian Xuan: Wang Xizhi Watching Geese
Qian Xuan 錢選, Wang Xizhi watching geese 王羲之觀鵝圖, Handscroll; ink, color, and gold on paper, ca. 1295, Image: 9 1/8 x 36 1/2 in. (23.2 x 92.7 cm), Overall with mounting: 11 x 418 13/16 in. (27.9 x 1063.8 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Qian Xuan: Wang Xizhi Watching Geese, continued
- Wang Xizhi is a renowned third-century figure famous for calligraphy inspired by goose movements and noted for moral integrity.
- Geese may symbolize warfare, particularly against northern peoples.
- The simplistic figures and bright colors convey meanings that were understood by the literati-in-exile during Qian Xuan’s time.
Ni Zan: Woods and Valleys of Mount Yu
Ni Zan 倪瓚 (1306–1374), Woods and Valleys of Mount Yu 虞山林壑圖, 1372, ink on paper, 37 1/4 x 14 1/8 in. (94.6 x 35.9 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ni Zan: Woods and Valleys of Mount Yu
- “Woods and Valleys of Mount Yu,” painted two years before Ni Zan’s death, reflects his contentment as a recluse.
- The poem concludes with themes of enjoying nature, wine, and poetry, highlighting lasting joyous feelings.
- Bamboo symbolized the true gentleman—bending but not breaking in the wind, reflecting the scholar’s integrity in adversity.
- The painting features dry but tender brushwork, conveying a sense of aloofness and restraint.
Story of Dou E
- Written by Guan Hanging (ca. 1220-ca. 1307), recognized as the greatest playwright of the Yuan dynasty.
- His masterpiece, “Dou E’s Revenge,” tells the story of a young girl whose mother is deceased and whose father is a scholar.
- While her father is away for civil service examinations, Dou E is adopted by a woman who promises her son in marriage. In the end, she is wrongly convicted of crimes by a corrupt court official for poisoning her father-in-law.
- Upon her father’s return as an official reviewing capital cases, Dou E’s spirit appears in court and reveals the identity of the true murderer.
Dou E: A Model Rebel?
- Guan Hanqing foregrounds Dou E’s suffering and agency.
- Dou E challenges her mother-in-law, denounces villains, criticizes official corruption, and questions justice, showcasing her strength.
- Moral Complexity: Dou E’s actions push against traditional morality while still embodying values like filial piety.
Fall of Mongols: Succession Crisis, Again
- After 1332, issues leading to the dynasty’s fall became apparent when Toghon Temür, a thirteen-year-old boy, was named emperor.
- The Mongol chancellor aimed to restore early Mongol policies, including reducing imperial expenditures to combat inflation, but also enforced a strict separation between Chinese and Mongol peoples.
- Court factions debated cultural mixing, but a series of disasters ultimately contributed to the dynasty’s collapse.
Little Ice Age
- The Little Ice Age began around 1270, bringing cooler temperatures than the previous Medieval Warm Period.
- The first cold phase peaked around 1370, followed by a mild period lasting about a century, then global cooling resumed around 1470.
- The Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368 during the peak cold period.
- While temperature changes are not the only factor in dynastic shifts, they are significant in the overall context.
Summary: Mongol Rule in China
Until recently, scholars primarily focused on the destructive impact of Mongol rule in China:
- The Mongols caused significant damage during their conquest of North and South China.
- Mongol rulers were distrustful of Confucian scholar-official and abolished the civil service examinations, a fundamental Chinese institution, which remained banned until 1315.
- They governed with a clear hierarchy: the Mongols at the top, followed by non-Han, mostly Islamic populations, northern Chinese, and finally southern Chinese at the bottom.
Summary: Mongol Rule in China, Continued
But Mongol rule was also formative period in Chinese history:
- The Mongols viewed China as just one part of their vast Eurasian empire.
- Foreign territories, peoples, and cultures were absorbed, from the Tanguts and Khitans to Europeans (such as Marco Polo).
- New vernacular language and literati culture: Rise of popular dramas and scholar paintings
- Change to Chinese dynastic tradition and political culture: “The great state”
Zhu Yuanzhang: From Rebel to Ruler
- Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398) was born in the poor Huai region and lost most of his family to plague by 1344, later begging as a Buddhist novice.
- He joined the Red Turban rebels, displaying military talent and strong leadership.
- In 1368, he defeated rival warlords and remnants of the Yuan dynasty, becoming the first emperor of the Ming dynasty (Hongwu era) and is often called Ming Taizu.
- His difficult childhood led him to value agriculture and develop a traditional government focused on protecting farmers.
The Great Ming: At a Glance
At the time of its founding, the Ming Empire had:
- 60 million subjects (1290-1330)
- 1.5 million square miles
- Three Offices for each province: Provincial Administration Commission, Provincial Surveillance Commission, and Regional Military Commission
- ~1100 counties, overseen by a single magistrate in charge of security, finances, taxes, and public works
- Counties subdivided into cantons, townships, and wards (~100 families)
Discuss: Proclamation of Hongwu Emperor
- What are Emperor Taizu’s worries?
- How did he talk about himself?
- How should Emperor Taizu govern the Ming, given his concerns?
Taizu’s Vision for China
- Emperor Taizu aimed to eliminate poverty, class conflict, and chaos from his upbringing.
- He envisioned small farms in harmonious villages where families worked together.
- Men and women would prioritize caring for their families and paying taxes, without reliance on market production or leaving home for work.
- Officials would be honest and serve the empire selflessly.
Counting the Population: Yellow Registers
- Emperor Taizu of the Ming initiated reforms that provided the central government with detailed information about individuals and landholdings.
- In 1381, Taizu mandated officials to collect data on all residents, including the head of the household’s name, age, birthplace, occupation, land and animal holdings, and residence size.
- Four copies of this information were made for each district, prefecture, and region, with the central government keeping a copy in yellow covers, leading to the term “Yellow Registers.”
Counting the Land: Fish-scale Registers
- In 1387, revenue losses prompted reforms to register landholdings, called fish-scale registers.
- By 1393, enough data was collected to set provincial and district tax quotas, which became the foundation for future tax collections.
- However, inflation in the fifteenth century made land-tax revenues insufficient, and officials struggled to update the registers due to manpower shortages.
Ming’s First – and Last – Prime Minister
- In 1376, he purged about 10,000 officials for leaving tax reports blank.
- In 1380, he accused Prime Minister Hu Weiyong of plotting against him. Though the charges might have been false, they highlight Hu’s power.
- Zhu eliminated Hu and many associates, resulting in around 15,000 victims and about 40,000 officials executed over the next 14 years.
- After the purges, government operations depended on the emperor’s capabilities, as key agencies were dismantled.
- Zhu later reappointed low-ranking officials to form a cabinet called the Grand Secretariat by the 1420s, but it lacked the authority of the former prime minister.