S21: Great States

• Who were the Mongols? How did they conquer Eurasia?
• How did Mongol rule change Chinese history? Concept of the “Great State”
• Living under foreign rule: Literati paintings

• Early emperors transformed China by using a competitive civil service exam to select skilled scholar-officials.
• The education and competence of Song officials distinguished them from Tang officials and elites in other societies.
• Song China was efficient and pragmatic: Confucian rule through reliability and responsibility rather than fear or control.

• After the Northern Song provinces fell under Jin rule in 1127, the Jurchens, now the ruling minority, had to make political and cultural concessions to the majority Han Chinese population.
• How much should the Jin “sinicize” – that is, adopting Chinese customs, including the calendar, civil service examinations, and Confucian practices?

• Since the 1120s, the Yellow River flooded, changing course in 1194 and destroying crops for thirty years.
• This flooding reduced agricultural tax revenues for the Jin and caused a bronze coin shortage.

Song:

• The Southern Song launched an attack on the struggling Jin.
• In 1214, the Jin sought peace and increased demands for silver and silk to fund military efforts against the Mongols, but the Song refused.

Mongols:

• Ongoing flooding and drought forced the Jin emperor to retreat to Kaifeng, interpreted by the Mongols as preparation for war.
• The Mongols captured Beijing in 1215, driving the weakened Jin south.
• The Jin became a minor regional power until their fall in 1234.

Westward…

• Mongol forces invaded Khwarazm Empire (1219-1225):, resulting in the massacre of millions.
• This campaign solidified the Mongols’ reputation for invincibility and mercilessness, with Chinggis Khan described as the “scourge of Allah” by Arab chroniclers.

… Then back

• Mongol forces advanced as far west as the Kipchak Steppes north of the Caspian Sea and south to the Black Sea via the Caucasus.
• Most troops returned to Mongolia between 1224 and 1225 after extensive campaigns.

• The Mongols transitioned from nomadic herding to relying on the spoils of war for their well-being.
• Chinggis Khan demanded loyalty and obedience from his followers, emphasizing loyalty and revenge.
• The Mongol military was organized into 95 units of 1,000 fighters, with command based on ability and bravery.

• The Chinese struggled to develop a powerful cavalry.
• The Chinese navy lacked experience and made strategic mistakes in battles against the Mongols; for example, in 1273 at the Battle of Jiaoshan, the Mongols effectively supported their navy with cavalry.

• Mongol commanders advised city dwellers to “surrender without fighting” to ensure survival.
• Cities that complied were often plundered but spared from mass slaughter.
• He destroyed cities and their inhabitants, often killing tens of thousands.
• The terror spread by Mongol troops was a constant fear for Chinese living in northern provinces.

The Mongol Empire was divided into four khanates:

• Golden Horde: In southern Russia and Ukraine.
• Chaghadai: Formerly the state of Khwarazm.
• Il-khanate: Later known as the khanate of West Asia (Persia).
• Khanate of Mongolia: Möngke appointed his brother Khubilai to the khanate of China in 1253, tasking him to invade Southern Song for resources.

• Emerged victorious at a grand assembly on May 5, 1260.
• Proclaimed a new dynasty known later as the Yuan on December 18, 1271.
• Became Emperor Shizu (r. 1260–1294), the first non-native ruler of all of China.

• The Mongols were a small minority (~2 million).
• At that time, Mongolian language had no script and could not be written down.
• Little experience with civilian administration, especially in taxation and government recruitment.
• Tanistry vs. Mandate of heaven: Lack of legitimacy, and unstable succession

Khubilai divided the population of the khanate of China into four groups:

• Mongols: Dominant group
• People of “various categories”: Central and Western Asians: including many Muslims.
• Northern Chinese
• Southern Chinese

• The Yuan dynasty favored northerners and distrusted southerners who resisted Mongol rule.
• Northerners administered the former Southern Song territories, while southerners were excluded from government and had to negotiate with the rulers.
• Officials were chosen based on personal recommendations instead of exams, leading to resentment among marginalized southerners.

• There were key differences between Chinese and Mongolian administration, particularly in taxation methods and recruitment processes.
• The Mongols preferred to engage with Turkic peoples of Central Asia, such as the Kitans, Tanguts, and Uighurs, who understood both Mongolian and Chinese. These Turkic groups were referred to as the “semu people” or “people of various categories.”

• Marco Polo (1254-1324) traveled from Europe to Asia between 1271 and 1295, spending 17 years in China.
• He gained favor with Kublai Khan, who sent him on various missions across the empire.
• Marco explored regions like Yunnan in southwestern China, Tagaung in Myanmar, and southeastern China, describing the city of “Quinsay” (now Hangzhou).
• He may have also had administrative roles, such as overseeing customs and trade, though this is debated.

• Born in 1304 in Morocco to a family of Muslim legal scholars.
• In 1325, he began the hajj to Mecca, realizing the vast, interconnected world of diverse peoples.
• Over 30 years, he traveled around 73,000 miles, visiting over 40 modern countries.
• From 1345 to 1346, he traveled through Muslim port cities via the Strait of Malacca to China.
• His journeys showcased the unity of the 14th-century Afro-Eurasian world, emphasizing Islam’s role in fostering security and communication.

• Where did Ibn Battuta go? What did he see?
• What were his views of Yuan?
• Is Ibn Battuta a reliable narrator? Why (or why not)?
• What can his travelogue tell us about life in Yuan?

• Khubilai Khan moved the capital from Khara Khorum (first capital of the Mongol Empire between 1235 and 1260) due to logistical challenges in supplying the city.
• Daidu (modern-day Beijing) was built as the second Mongol capital. Marco Polo referred to it as “Cambaluc,” meaning “The City of the Emperor.”
• Daidu was established farther south and featured a typical Chinese-style city with Mongolian influences.

• Porcelain is a Chinese invention, but the traditional blue designs on a white background are not originally Chinese.
• The taste for blue and white originated in Persia, where potters lacked the ability to create pure porcelain.
• Persian potters used cobalt to create vivid decorations, which influenced Chinese potters.
• Chinese potters, using superior glazing technology, produced finer porcelain that became popular in Persian markets starting in the 14th century.

• Originally the vases, modeled after bronzes, had porcelain rings attached through the elephant head shaped handles.
• They were made for the altar of a Daoist temple and their importance lies in the dated inscriptions on one side of their necks, above the bands of dragons.
• The long dedication is the earliest known on Chinese blue-and-white wares.
• To learn more, listen to this episode of the BBC podcast, History of the World in 100 Objects: The David Vases

• The Kangnido map, created ninety years before Columbus, depicts Afro-Eurasia.
• The map has inaccuracies: the Korean peninsula is oversized, Africa is undersized, and India is missing.
• Despite these errors, it accurately positions Africa, China, Korea, and Japan relative to each other.
• With place names from as far as Marseilles, the map reflects rich cultural exchanges within the Mongol empire and the introduction of Islamic geographical knowledge into Yuan China.

• After Kublai Khan conquered the Southern Song Dynasty in 1279, Gong Kai remained loyal to the Song and refused to serve the Mongols, fleeing to Jiangnan and living in poverty.
• The emaciated horse in his painting symbolizes his personal hardships and his rejection of government service.
• It also represents the decline of China under Mongolian rule, contrasting with the strength of China in earlier dynasties.

• Wang Xizhi is a renowned third-century figure famous for calligraphy inspired by goose movements and noted for moral integrity.
• Geese may symbolize warfare, particularly against northern peoples.
• The simplistic figures and bright colors convey meanings that were understood by the literati-in-exile during Qian Xuan’s time.

• “Woods and Valleys of Mount Yu,” painted two years before Ni Zan’s death, reflects his contentment as a recluse.
• The poem concludes with themes of enjoying nature, wine, and poetry, highlighting lasting joyous feelings.
• Bamboo symbolized the true gentleman—bending but not breaking in the wind, reflecting the scholar’s integrity in adversity.
• The painting features dry but tender brushwork, conveying a sense of aloofness and restraint.