China to 1800 – S06: Wealth and Power

Song: All Things Must Pass

George Harrison: Inspiration from Daodejing

Sunrise doesn’t last all morning
A cloudburst doesn’t last all day
Seems my love is up
And has left you with no warning
It’s not always gonna be this grey
All things must pass
All things must pass away
All things must pass
None of life’s strings can last
So I must be on my way
And face another day

To speak of nature is to say that the swift wind does not last all morning, and the sudden rain does not last all day. Who causes this? Heaven and Earth. If Heaven and Earth cannot endure forever, how much less can humans? Therefore, those who engage with the Way, the practitioners of the Way, align with the Way; those of virtue align with virtue; those who experience loss align with loss.

Chapter 23 of Daodejing

From Transformation to Transcendence

Life and death are simply two aspects of the great process of transformation. Life involves infinite variety and inexorable change, and this includes death.
The Way is experienced when we recognize the interrelations among all things.

Discuss: Zhuangzi

What is the “transformation of things”? How does one tell dream from reality?
What’s the moral of Cook Ding’s story?
How does Zhuangzi view death? Why?
What is the way according to Zhuangzi? How does it compare with that of Laozi and Confucius?

Laozi and Zhuangzi compared: Similarities

Constant Flux and Transformation:

Everything is in a state of continuous change. The Way represents the degree to which everything in the world is interrelated.

Mind as an Obstacle:

Unlike other creatures that spontaneously follow the Way, humans, burdened by their minds, must learn to stop resisting it to find peace and happiness. We need to empty ourselves of constant activity and desires to become closer to the Way.

Questioning Interpretive Assumptions:

We need to question our ability to accurately interpret and judge the world, particularly regarding notions of good and bad.

Laozi and Zhuangzi compared: Differences

Literary Style:

Laozi: Exhibits a more straightforward, philosophical tone focused on metaphysical concepts.
Zhuangzi: Features a unique literary style characterized by incisive anecdotes, discussions among fantastical characters, and a blend of poetry and prose, often with humorous and fantastical elements.

Approach to Governance:

Laozi: Engages with the idea of governance and the role of the ruler in harmony with the Way.
Zhuangzi: Rejects active political engagement, suggesting that one should withdraw from the tumult of political life.

Comparing Zhuangzi and Confucius

Zhuangzi	Confucius
Critiques Confucius for being too directed and goal-oriented, suggesting this focus can close individuals off from experiencing the Way.	Emphasizes structured rituals and adherence to societal norms as a means to connect with the Way.
Advocates for embracing the interplay of all things (yin and yang) and recognizes the interconnectedness of life, encouraging a broader perspective.	Centers on the human experience and the importance of rituals as a way to honor ancestors and focus on the present moment.
Believes that the distinction between life and death is a false dichotomy; sees humans as part of a larger, continuous cycle.	Acknowledges his ignorance about death and places less emphasis on it in his teachings.
Uses stories and dreams (e.g., the butterfly dream) to illustrate the fluidity of identity and the endless transformation of the world.	Promotes self-reflection through daily rituals to encourage personal change and moral development.
Deliberately ambiguous about specific actions one should take, encouraging individuals to perceive the world differently to discover their own path.	Emphasizes the importance of fulfilling societal roles and responsibilities through established rituals.

Key Questions

Mohism: What’s the utility of rituals? What is universal love?
Legalists: How to strengthen control of the state? How to increase its power?
The Axial Age: Philosophers as Statesmen
How to stop Qin as a rising hegemon? From military alliances to assassination

Discuss: Mozi

What does Heaven desire? How do we know what Heaven desires?
How should rulers govern? By what standards should we judge their behaviors?
What might Mozi say about Confucius? What might Confucius say about Mozi?

Mozi: Utilitarian and Consequentialist Ethics

Actions should be based on their consequences. Promoting maximal utility aligns with Heaven’s will.
Actions can be evaluated based on their concrete outcomes in terms of profit (good) and loss (bad), with a focus on maximizing profit.
Heaven desires the greatest benefit for humanity, justifying his utilitarian approach as divinely sanctioned.
Individuals do not need to cultivate personal virtues; instead, they should aim for actions that yield the greatest overall benefit.

Mozi: Universal love

Many societal issues stem from human greed. If individuals loved others as they love themselves, conflicts over resources would diminish.
Unrestrained competition harms everyone and that mutual care can eliminate greed and strife.

Mozi on Logical argumentation (three standards for validity)

Did the ancients think it was right?
Is it common sense, that is, does it accord with what people generally know to be true?
Does it bring benefit to the people?

Mozi’s Messages to rulers

Rulers should conform to the natural world and universal principles, such as the regularity of light, rain, and seasonal changes.
Their primary concern should be the well-being of their subjects, aligning governance with the needs of the people.
Rulers chosen by heredity lead to flaws in governance.
Administrators should be selected based on merit, ensuring that individuals are chosen for their abilities at all levels of the hierarchy.

Challenges to Confucianism

Mohists (Mozi)

Advocates for social and political action guided by the principle of increasing benefit (li 利) for all people, regardless of location.
Universal love, suggesting that everyone should care for all people equally.
Challenges the tradition-centered justification of social and political norms found in Confucius’s teachings, particularly questioning the efficacy of the Zhou cultural model.

Daoists (Laozi and Zhuangzi) - Return to simpler ways of thinking and living, rejecting the complexities of civilization. - Preference for more primitive, individual lifestyle over the structured societal norms promoted by Confucianism.

Discuss: Shang Yang and Hanfeizi

How should a ruler govern?
What should be the relationship between the rulers and the people?
What is the source of political power? How does one keep it?
Rise of Qin: How to counter a rising power?

Legalists: A Darker Way

A ruler must control “Two Handles” (rewards and punishments) to maintain authority. Ministers should not have the power to dispense rewards and punishments independently.
Rulers should hide their abilities, desires, and emotions to protect themselves from manipulative ministers who could exploit this information.
The relationship between officials (rulers) and the people is not built on love or emotional ties; rather, a wise ruler builds respect and awe for their authority rather than fostering virtues.
The “Way” as a set of cosmic principles that only the ruler understands, used to strengthen their control. The people are ignorant.
Rulers must be free to change standards and customs to adapt to changing times, in contrast to Confucian traditionalism or Daoist transcendentalism.

Debate: Finding the Way

Form groups of 5-6:

Confucianism
Daoism
Legalism
Mohism
Ruler (1-2)

Discuss:

What is the problem of the day?
What is the way? How do we find it?
Why is your school the best way forward? How does it compare?

Philosophers as Statesmen

Despite ongoing military conflicts among large territorial states, this era witnessed remarkable intellectual developments, particularly with the emergence of the Shi (men of service).
Philosophers sought to restore the social order envisioned by the Zhou royal house, interpreting it as the will of Heaven, with varying methods proposed to achieve this goal.
Early Chinese philosophy emphasized practical solutions to worldly problems rather than the exploration of the relationship between humans and deities, distinguishing it from Greek philosophical traditions.

The Axial Age

Introduced by German philosopher Karl Jaspers, the Axial Age refers to a period in which significant philosophical ideas emerged across different civilizations, shaping their fundamental concepts.

Region	Developments
Middle East	Rise of classical Judaism through the prophets; beginnings of rabbinical Judaism
Persia	Emergence of Zoroastrianism
India	Transition from the Vedas to the Upanishads; development of Buddhism, Jainism, and other heterodox sects
China	Flourishing of Confucianism and Daoism; emergence of the “hundred schools” of thought
Greece	Evolution from the works of Homer and Hesiod to pre-Socratic and classical philosophy

Common Sociopolitical Conditions

All regions were politically divided into small states and towns.
These politically fragmented areas were engaged in continuous conflicts.
Misery from wars and revolutions in one area was counterbalanced by simultaneous prosperity in others; destruction was not universal.
The existing social and political conditions were critically questioned.

Fundamental Questions

The collapse of early civilizations led to profound inquiries about identity and purpose:

Who are we?
Why are we here, and where are we going?
If early civilization does not provide human happiness, what does? What alternatives exist to the classical way?

How useful is the “Axial Age” as concept?

Key differences: Cross-cultural influences

Greek, Judaic, and Roman influences brought together in Hellenistic framework.
Chinese and Indian civilizations developed separately, within their own contexts.

Bias: Implict hierarchy

How to define “high civilization”? Who were the “primitive” people?
Why didn’t other major civilizations, such as Egypt, experience the Axial Age?

Warring States: Rise of Seven Major Powers

Map of the Warring States of China, circa 260 BCE

By the early third century BC, a relatively stable multipolar power structure emerged, dominated by seven powerful territorial states: Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi, Qin, Chu, and Yan, with smaller polities existed between these dominant states.

Rise of the Territorial State

Western Zhou

States existed in various spatial forms, which were layered clusters of settlements without clear boundaries.

Warring States

The territorial state is characterized by a larger territorial entity under the control of a capital, with clear boundaries defended by military forces.
Counties (Xian) emerged as unitary administrative units through the dissolution of lineage structures due to warfare and domestic conflicts.

Small Farmers as Backbone of the State

The well-field system (Chinese: 井田制度; pinyin: jǐngtián zhìdù) was a Chinese land redistribution method used from the ninth century BCE (late Western Zhou dynasty) to the Warring States period. The name derives from the character 井 (jǐng), resembling a # symbol, which represents a square area of land divided into nine equal sections. The eight outer sections were privately cultivated by farmers, while the central section was communally cultivated for the government or a landowning aristocrat.

The seventh to fifth centuries BC: emergence of “small farmers”, defined as a nuclear family unit consisting of a couple and their immediate relatives, usually not exceeding ten members, who cultivated land they owned or rented

Shang Yang’s Reform

The law

Double taxes on families with two or more adult males
Prohibiting adult males from living in the same household as their fathers.

The Effects - Aimed to weaken familial solidarity and enforce a universal administrative structure, while also serving the state’s economic interests. - First instance of the state regulating the size of peasant families through legislation.

War and State-building

Land battles in Jian Basin with Copper-inlaid Battle Scenes

The relationship between the state and farmers was facilitated through laws, taxation, and military service.
The state established direct contact with individual farmers and took on a moral responsibility for their well-being.
A universal ranking system was implemented to reward farmers for their service, fostering a long-lasting bond between the state and individual farmers.

Unending Conflicts

The primary goal of territorial states was to acquire new territory, which was predominantly achieved through warfare.
There were rarely two years without a major battle between states, with many years witnessing multiple military campaigns: A total of 358 inter-state wars from 535 to 286 BC, averaging a frequency of 1.37 wars per year.

Basin with Copper-inlaid Battle Scenes

Reconstructed scenes from Copper-inlaid Battle Scenes. Tihs basin is most famous for the inlaid battle scenes, which not only show various battle scenes of ancient China, but also provide important materials for the study of the history of ancient weaponry with their depiction of the halberd, spears and two-pronged lances.

Total war

Military service extended to the entire population, primarily composed of small farmers.
Warfare evolved from a contest of individual fighting skills to one focused on the sheer number of soldiers a state could mobilize to overwhelm its enemies.

Major battles commonly saw 100,000 to 200,000 soldiers engaged on each side, with casualties easily reaching 30,000.
Brutal tactics: Between Qin and Zhao in 260 BC, where the Zhao army of approximately 400,000 surrendered after their commander was killed. Only 240 young soldiers were spared the massacre.

How to bring an end to the bloodshed?

The states recognized that their condition of constant conflict and desire for power was undesirable.
Philosophers and politicians acknowledged the instability of the order and dreamed of unifying the states under a single ruler.