• Ideals of rulership: Virtue, rather than divine right by birth
• Text vs. Artifact: Multi-linear, multiple origins of Chinese civilizations
• Archaeology, myths, and nationalism: Revival of Yellow Emperor cults; Debates on Sanxingdui

• The primary topic of oracle-bone inscriptions was royal sacrifice.
• These sacrifices were closely tied to the religious beliefs of the Shang people, who had a complex pantheon.
• The supreme deity was the “High God” (Shangdi or Di).
• Despite their reliance on the High God, the Shang sometimes expressed uncertainty about the deity’s will, fearing potential disasters.

• For the Shang, the world was inhabited by spirits, not just natural features.
• The Shang king ruled using shamanistic power to communicate with deities, often relying on animals depicted on bronze vessels for assistance.
• Divination involved professionals, who played central roles in governance.

• 1898: oracle bones with ancient Chinese writing discovered.
• 1928: excavations at Anyang (the Shang capital) began.
• 1986: discoveries of major bronze culture at Sanxingdui, Sichuan.

• How to read a Chinese bronze? What can these objects tell us about social, political, and technological transformations from Shang to Zhou?
• What is “mandate of heaven”? (What is it not?)
• How did China become “Chinese”? Puzzle of Sanxingdui

Shared features

• Strong government, urban centers, social classes, palaces, writing, rituals, art, and bronze work.

What’s distinctive about ancient China?

• Bronze mainly used for ritual vessels, rather than welfare.
• Rulers used bronze vessels to make offerings to ancestors, seeking favorable influence.
• They symbolized the wealth and power of rulers and showcased advanced artistry.

• Height: 53.8 cm, depth of belly: 27.2 cm,
• diameter: 47 cm, weight: 34.7 kg
• National Palace Museum, Taipei
• King Xuan appointed his uncle, the Duke of Mao, to govern domestic and external affairs.
• The vessel was cast to honor the Duke and record the kingdom’s history for posterity.

• Introduction of clan names (or “surname” [xìng]) as a hallmark of their lineage system.
• Lineages became social units that held land estates and people, competing for political power and economic interests.
• Prestigious lineages of Zhou elites trace their history back to pre-dynastic times, when they split from the royal lineage.

• Official appointments by the Zhou king were regularly delivered in writing.
• The Zhou king hosted rituals where written commands were pronounced by the Interior Scribe to appointees, who then inscribed these commands onto bronzes.
• The process of royal appointments increasingly regularized, involving specific officials and standardized procedures.

King Wen is on high, Oh, he shines in Heaven! Zhou is an old people, but its Mandate is new. The leaders of Zhou became illustrious, was not God’s Mandate timely given? King Wen ascends and descends on the left and right of God.

August was King Wen, continuously bright and reverent. Great, indeed, was the Mandate of Heaven. There were Shang’s grandsons and sons, Shang’s grandsons and sons. Was their number not a hundred thousand? But the High God gave his Mandate, and they bowed down to Zhou.

The Mandate is not easy to keep; may it not end in your persons. Display and make bright your good fame, and consider what Yin had received from Heaven. The doings of high Heaven have no sound, no smell. Make King Wen your pattern, and all the states will trust in you.

Note: Yin, the final capital of the Shang dynasty

Implications for the rulers:

• Prudent rulers monitored the skies and their subjects for signs of Heaven’s disapproval.
• Some philosophers argued that people had the right to rebel against a bad king.

Limitations:

• While often interpreted as a check on evil rulers, the mandate of heaven is used by later dynasties to justify their overthrow of the previous dynasty – but after the fact.
• The Mandate of Heaven made historical events seem like the outcome of divine will. But if widespread opposition arose but the ruler suppressed it before being overthrown, the ruler could retain the Mandate.

Shang

• We must make offerings to ancestors to make them happy.

Zhou

• How we behave is the standard by which we are judged.
• Do we act according to the rules and rituals of heaven’s mandate?

Most of the other ancient civilizations have now largely declined, but China continues to exist. Not only does it continue to exist, but it has also entered a socialist society. China is an ancient yet new country. There is a line in the Book of Songs that says, “Although Zhou is an old state, its mandate is renewed.” The characteristic of modern China is this combination of old state and new mandate.

Describe

• What is this object? Where does it come from?
• How was it made?
• What’s the shape of the vessel? How is it related to its purpose?
• What decorative elements – inscription, motifs, etc. – do you see?

Analyze

• What was it used for?
• What can it tell us about life back then?
• Why is this piece important?
• Choose another object. How are they similar/different?

• What resources were needed for the bronze production?
• What kind of craftsmen were needed?
• How was their labor organized?

• Artist
• Tin Miner
• Copper Miner
• Forest Manager
• Mold Maker

• Smelter
• Farmer
• Cook
• Boss

• Prominent pair of eyes, often in high relief.
• Nose between the eyes, sometimes with nostrils at the base.
• Includes jaws and fangs, horns, ears, and eyebrows.
• Various geometric patterns depicting dragons, birds, owls, tigers, bulls, snakes, rhinoceros, and other animals, both real and fantastical.

Shang:

• Symmetry, frontality, and incised ornament.
• Horizontal bands complement vessel contours.
• Frequent use of frontal animal masks.

Zhou:

• Western Zhou: Zoomorphic forms become more abstract, Shang motifs dissolve.
• Eastern Zhou: Wave, interlace, and geometric patterns cover vessels.
• Handles become sculptural, depicting beasts.

Shang Bronzes:

• Shapes favored wine-related purposes.
• Inscriptions were terse, identifying the owner or dedicatee.

Zhou Bronzes:

• Fewer wine vessels produced: the Zhou thought Shang’s over-indulgence led to the loss of mandate of heaven.
• New types of cooking and storage vessels introduced.
• Vessels became status symbols, less focused on ritual.
• Inscriptions became longer, extolling the owner’s achievements and lineage. They eventually disappeared, replaced by rich inlays.

Bronze Standing Figure
Shang Dynasty ca.1600 - 1046 BC
Sanxingdui, Guanghan city, Sichuan Province
w48.5 x h260.8 cm (Complete)

• Civilization expanded continuously from the “Central Plain” (North China Plain).
• This region corresponds roughly to present-day Henan Province, along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River.
• The core Chinese population inhabited this central area.
• Peripheral Regions: These areas were considered lands occupied by various groups of “barbarians.”

• Sanxingdui’s cultural and religious system was significantly different from that of the Shang in the north.
• At the same time, other bronze objects showed influence of Shang types, indicating some contact with the north and the middle Yangzi region to the east.